Short Contents ************** MIX 1 Introduction to MIX 2 `mixal' - MIX Assembler. 3 `mixsim' - MIX Simulator. 4 `mixrun' 5 How to Report a Bug Appendix A GNU Free Documentation License Concept Index Table of Contents ***************** MIX 1 Introduction to MIX 2 `mixal' - MIX Assembler. 2.1 Assembling MIXAL Programs. 2.2 Program Listing 2.3 Raw Object Code. 2.4 `mixal' option summary. 3 `mixsim' - MIX Simulator. 3.1 A MIX Machine Implementation. 3.2 Executing MIX Programs. 3.3 Terminal Mode and Debugger. 3.3.1 Mixsim Commands 3.3.1.1 Command Completion 3.3.2 Obtaining On-line Help 3.3.3 Quitting the Terminal 3.3.4 Assigning and Listing Devices 3.3.5 Running a Program 3.3.6 Breakpoints 3.3.6.1 Setting Breakpoints 3.3.6.2 Deleting Breakpoints 3.3.6.3 Disabling and Enabling Breakpoints 3.3.6.4 Configure Breakpoints 3.3.6.5 Listing Breakpoints 3.3.7 Stopping and Continuing 3.3.8 Executing Shell Commands. 3.3.9 Examining Data and Registers 3.3.10 A Summary of Terminal Commands. 3.4 Command Files 3.5 `mixsim' option summary. 4 `mixrun' 5 How to Report a Bug Appendix A GNU Free Documentation License Concept Index MIX *** This edition of the `MIX Manual', last updated 30 October 2009, documents MIX Version 2.0. 1 Introduction to MIX ********************* Plain MIX is a set of tools for assembling, running and debugging programs, written in MIXAL, an assembly language for an imaginary computer, MIX, used in "The Art of Computer Programming" of D. Knuth. This package provides a development platform for those who wish to try out examples and exercises from the book. It includes the following programs: `mixal' A MIXAL assembler, i.e. a program which translates a MIXAL source file into a program that can be run on a MIX machine. `mixsim' MIX machine simulator. There is no real, hardware, MIX machine, but you may use `mixsim' to emulate it and to run the programs, prepared by `mixal'. The `mixsim' utility also provides a "terminal mode" with a debugger, which is useful for finding and fixing bugs in your programs. It is also handy for educational purposes, as it allows to trace progam execution. `mixrun' A utility to run MIXAL programs, without creating an intermediate object file. This manual assumes the reader has some basic notions about MIX and MIXAL and that he has a copy of "The Art of Computer Programming" (referred to in this book as TAOCP) at hand. The page references to TAOCP assume the Addison-Wesley edition, 1968 (Library of congress catalog card no. 67-26020). 2 `mixal' - MIX Assembler. ************************** A MIX assembler is called `mixal'. The utility assembles its standard input (or a named file), which should be a valid MIXAL program, and writes the resulting object code to the standard output or to another file. This chapter describes how to use `mixal'. The examples in this chapter assume that the file `hello.mix' contains the following example program: * ``HELLO, WORLD'' PROGRAM PRINTER EQU 18 ORIG 3000 HELLO OUT TEXT(PRINTER) JBUS *(PRINTER) HLT TEXT ALF HELLO ALF , WOR ALF LD END HELLO 2.1 Assembling MIXAL Programs. ============================== The simplest way to assemble a MIXAL program is to give it as an argument to `mixal': $ mixal hello.mix The `mixal' utility assembles the program, and prints the resulting object code on the standard output. The object code is formatted as a "card deck", as described in `TAOCP, 1.3.1, p.141, ex. 26', therefore in this book we use the terms "object file" and "deck file" as synonyms. Each line in the deck file corresponds to a single punch card. First two cards are always the same -- they contain a loader routine, responsible for loading of the entire deck into MIX memory and passing control to the program entry point. The following lines, up to the last one, contain the program code, formatted as described in the following table: Column Meaning -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1-5 Ignored. 6 Number of consecutive words to be loaded on this card (between 1 and 7, inclusive). 7-10 The location of word 1 (always greater than 100). 11-20 Word 1. 21-30 Word 2. 31-40 Word 3. 41-50 Word 4. 51-60 Word 5. 61-70 Word 6. 71-80 Word 7. For example, the card: HELLO63000078721962107866953300000000133013558254406879733950219152384 contains 6 words to be loaded starting from address 3000. These words are: Address Word ------------------------------------------------------------------- 3000 0787219621 3001 0786695330 3002 0000000133 3003 0135582544 3004 0687973395 3005 0219152384 The deck ends with a special "transfer card", which contains information in format `TRANS0NNNN', where NNNN is the address of the program entry point. For example, `TRANS03000' means "start execution from address 3000". To illustrate this, here is the deck file produced for `hello.mix' (the first two cards are omitted): HELLO63000078721962107866953300000000133013558254406879733950219152384 TRANS03000 The card deck, produced by `mixal' can be executed by the MIX simulator, as described in *note mixsim::. In the simplest case, you can directly feed the deck to the standard input of `mixsim': $ mixal hello.mix | mixsim However, for more complex programs, it is common to store the produced card deck in a file for further use by `mixsim'. To do so, use `--output' (`-o') command line option, as shown in the example below: $ mixal --output=hello.deck hello.mix 2.2 Program Listing =================== To obtain more details about the generated object deck, use `--list' (`-l') command line option. This option generates a "listing file". The file name for this file is constructed by appending `.lst' suffix to the base name of the input file. For example, the following invocation will store the program listing in file `hello.lst'. $ mixal -l hello.mix If explicit input file is not given, e.g. when assembling the standard input, the listing is named `mixal.lst'. These naming conventions can be overridden, by specifying the listing name explicitly, with `--list-file' option. This option implies `--list', so you need not give the two options together. For example, the following invocation will store the listing in file `out/hello.list': $ mixal --list-file=out/hello.list hello.mix The program listing contains, for each line of the input source, the address of the corresponding MIX cell and the assembled cell contents, as shown in the table below: Column Meaning -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1-4 MIX cell address. 5 A semicolon 7-21 Cell contents. 23-27 Source line number. 28 and others. Source line. The cell contents (columns 7-21) is formatted as described in `TAOCP, 1.3.1, p.124, Instruction format': Column Meaning -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 7 Sign. 8-12 Address part. 14-15 I-field. 17-18 F-field. 20-21 Opcode. The following example shows `mixal' listing for the `hello.mix' program: 1 * ``HELLO, WORLD'' PROGRAM 2 PRINTER EQU 18 3 ORIG 3000 3000: + 3003 0 18 37 4 HELLO OUT TEXT(PRINTER) 3001: + 3001 0 18 34 5 JBUS *(PRINTER) 3002: + 0 0 2 5 6 HLT 3003: + 517 13 13 16 7 TEXT ALF HELLO 3004: + 2624 26 16 19 8 ALF , WOR 3005: + 836 0 0 0 9 ALF LD 10 END HELLO After the listing comes a "symbol table", which, for each symbol used in the program, shows its name, location and a source line, where it was defined. For example: Symbol Value Line PRINTER 18 2 HELLO 3000 4 TEXT 3003 7 The `Value' column contains a MIX location, corresponding to that symbol, except in case of macro-definitions (`EQU'), where the actual value of the macro is printed (see `PRINTER' in the example above). The symbol table contains not only user-defined symbols, but also any literals and local labels used in the program. For literals, the `Symbol' column contains their computed w-expressions, surrounded by equals sings. For example, the line MUL =2*25+1= will produce the symbol name `=51=', e.g.: Symbol Value Line =51= 1101 18 Local labels are displayed as two integer numbers, separated by a dash and surrounded by vertical bars (`|'). The first number corresponds to the number of the local label, the second one means its ordinal number in the program text. For example, the MIXAL fragment below: 1H INCX 0 DECA 11 JANP 1B 1H INCX 1 will produce the following two entries in the symbol table: Symbol Value Line |1-1| 1026 7 |1-2| 1029 10 An additional statistics about the input source can be obtained using `--xref' (`-x') option, which instructs `mixal' to print a cross-reference table of all used symbols. A "cross-reference table" is added as an additional column to the symbol table, described above. The contents of this column lists the lines where the symbol was referenced. The following example shows a cross-reference table for the `hello.mix' program: Symbol Value Line Referenced on line PRINTER 18 2 4 5 HELLO 3000 4 10 TEXT 3003 7 4 If `--xref' is used without `--list' (or `--list-file'), the symbol table is printed on the standard error. 2.3 Raw Object Code. ==================== Sometimes you may need to assemble a MIXAL program into a raw sequence of bytes, without composing a proper load deck. In particular, this becomes necessary if you wish to develop your own loading routine. The `--raw-output' (`-r') allows you to do that. When called with this option, `mixal' outputs assembled code as is, without converting it to object card format and without prefixing it with loader routine. Currently this option assumes that the produced code will be read using device 16 (card reader), so the output byte stream is formatted in blocks of 16 words (80 bytes) delimited by newlines. A particularly interesting implementation of this feature would be to produce a loader code for another type of input device, e.g. to load programs from magnetic tapes or disks. This, however, requires some further work on `mixsim' and will be implemented in future versions of the package. 2.4 `mixal' option summary. =========================== Usage: mixal [OPTIONS] [FILE] The following table summarizes the available command line options: `--list' `-l' Produce a source listing. Unless `--list-file' (see below) is used, the default listing file name is constructed by appending `.lst' suffix to the base name of the input file. If standard input is used, the listing file is named `mixal.lst'. *Note listing::. `--list-file=FILE' Set listing file name. Implies `--list'. *Note mixal-list-file::. `--force' `-f' Force generating object deck (and, eventually, listing) even if there were errors during assembly. `--output=FILE' `-o' Set output file name. By default, object deck is printed on the standard output. *Note mixal-output::. `--raw-output' `-r' Produce raw object output. *Note raw output::. `--xref' `--cross-reference' `-x' Output a cross reference. *Note mixal-xref::. `--debug-gram' Enable parser debugging output. `--debug-lex' Enable lexical analyzer debugging output. `-d LEVEL' Set debug level. This option is for compatibility with previous versions. The `-dy' option is equivalent to `--debug-gram', `-dl' is equivalent to `--debug-lex', `-dyl' (or `-dly') is equivalent to both. `--help' `-h' Print a concise help summary. `--version' `-V' Print program version and license information. 3 `mixsim' - MIX Simulator. *************************** The MIX simulator, `mixsim', allows you to execute object code assembled by `mixal', and to inspect the machine state at any stage of the execution. The simulator also includes a debugging facility, useful when analyzing the examples and solving problems from TAOCP. The simulator is written in compliance with the recommendations found in `TAOCP, 1.4.3.1, p.198, MIX Simulator'. 3.1 A MIX Machine Implementation. ================================= The simulator implements the MIX machine as described in `TAOCP, 1.3.1, p.120, Description of MIX'. The machine is shipped with all external equipment, except the paper tape unit(1), and the floating point feature. Each I/O device is bound to a particular UNIX file. By default the card reader is connected to stdin, the printer to stdout and the card punch to stderr. The typewriter is connected to stdin. The paper tape unit is not yet implemented. The tape units use files `tape0' to `tape7' and the disk units use files `disk0' to `disk8' in the current directory. None of these files is required to exist: they will be created on demand, when the first output operation on the given unit takes place. The disks are always opened for update without truncation, so that old data is not destroyed until it is overwritten. Note that big disk files will never shrink unless they are deleted. In contrast, the tapes are always opened with truncation, so that any existing data is lost after the first `OUT' instruction is executed. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) It will be implemented in future releases 3.2 Executing MIX Programs. =========================== When run without command line options, `mixsim' reads a load deck from device 16, loads and executes it, writing any error messages to stderr. On completion, a dump of the machine state is written to stderr. If `mixsim' is interrupted during execution, the machine state will be dumped to stderr. At most one argument can be given. It is treated as a file name to be assigned to the card reader device. Thus, there are three ways to execute a load deck previously stored in a file: a. Redirect the file's contents to the `mixsim' stdin: $ mixsim < hello.deck b. Give the file name as an argument to `mixsim': $ mixsim hello.deck c. Assign the file to device `#16', using `-a' option (see below): $ mixsim -a 16=hello.deck The default device assignments can be changed using `--assign-device' (`-a') command line option. It takes a single argument in the form DEV=FILE, where DEV is the MIX device number and FILE is the name of file to be assigned to it. For example, the following invocation tells `mixsim' to connect the card puncher (device 17) to file `punch.out': $ mixsim --assign 17=punch.out 3.3 Terminal Mode and Debugger. =============================== When given the `--terminal' (`-t') option, `mixsim' starts in "terminal mode". The terminal mode provides a custom shell for executing, tracing and debugging MIX programs. When you start `mixsim' in this mode, you will see: $ mixsim -t MIX TERMINAL STATION READY FOR COMMUNICATION MIX> _ The `MIX>' string at the end of the screen is the "terminal prompt", inviting you to enter a command. The syntax of terminal commands is similar to that of shell: each command consists of a "command verb", optionally followed by one or more "arguments", separated by any amount of whitespace. A command ends with a newline character. 3.3.1 Mixsim Commands --------------------- All `mixsim' command verbs (hereinafter referred to as "commands") are case-insensitive. Each command has a full and contracted form, the latter one being designed to save extra typing. If the package is configured with `readline' support enabled (which is the default, if `readline' is present on the system), you can abbreviate a command to the first few letters of the command name, if that abbreviation is unambiguous. A flexible command line editing facility is also available in this case. *Note completion::, for a detailed desctiption. You can test if an abbreviation is valid by using it as an argument to the `help' command (*note help::). A blank line as input to GDB (typing just `RET') means to repeat the previous command. Any text from a `#' to the end of the line is a comment; it is ignored. This is useful mainly in command files (*note command files::). 3.3.1.1 Command Completion .......................... This subsection discusses the command completion facility, available if `mix' is configured with `readline' support. Using this feature is recommended. If you don't have GNU `readline', we suggest you to get it from the Readline Home Page (http://cnswww.cns.cwru.edu/php/chet/readline/rltop.html) prior to compiling `mix'. *Note Command Line Editing: (readline)Command Line Editing, for more information about the library. `Mixsim' can fill in the rest of a word in a command for you, if there is only one possibility; it can also show you what the valid possibilities are for the next word in a command, at any time. Press the `TAB' key whenever you want `mixsim' to fill out the rest of a word for you. If there is only one possibility, it will replace the partial word and will wait for you to finish the command. This "command completion" is context-dependent. For example, if you type: MIX> br_TAB this command will immediately be expanded to `break', since it is the only possibility in this context: MIX> break If there is more than one possibility to complete the word you are typing, `mixsim' rings a bell. You can either supply more characters and try again, or just press `TAB' one more time, in which case `mixsim' will display all the possible completions for that word. For example, the `address' command (*note breakpoints::) can be followed by several keywords, so, if you type `TAB' after `address', `mixsim' rings a bell and waits for your further actions. If you press `TAB' second time, you'll see: MIX> ADDRESS _TAB A bell sounds. Pess `TAB' again to see: CB DELETE ENABLE INFO LIST CLEAR DISABLE IGNORE LB PASSCOUNT MIX> ADDRESS _ To save you typing, it is also possible to view the list of alternatives in the first place. To do so, type `M-?', instead of pressing `TAB' twice. `M-?' means either to hold down a key designated as the `META' shift on your keyboard (if there is one) while typing `?', or to press `ESC', followed by `?'. If the context requires you to type a file name, `mixsim' will complete file names. For example: MIX> ASGN 16 ../examples/_M-? mystery.mix hello.mix init.mix p.mix easter.mix load.mix tsort.mix Similarly, if the context requires a name of an executable file, you will see the appropriate completion, made using your `PATH' environment variable setting: MIX> ! ca_TAB TAB cat cal 3.3.2 Obtaining On-line Help ---------------------------- `HELP' `?' To obtain help about all available commands, type `HELP'. `HELP CMD' `? CMD' When used with an argument, it displays usage summary for the given command verb, e.g.: MIX> HELP ASGN ASGN 3.3.3 Quitting the Terminal --------------------------- `QUIT' `Q' To exit the terminal, use the `QUIT' (abbreviated `Q'), or type an end-of-file character (usually `C-d'). An interrupt (`C-c') does not exit from `mixsim', but rather stops the program being executed (*note stopping::), or, if no program is being run, cancels the current input line. 3.3.4 Assigning and Listing Devices ----------------------------------- `ASGN DEVICE FILE' `A DEVICE FILE' Assign FILE to the given MIX device. DEVICE specifies the device number. In the effect of this command, output operations on DEVICE will write the data to FILE, and input operations on DEVICE will read data from FILE. For example, to assign file `hello.deck' to the card reader, type: MIX> ASGN 16 hello.deck To obtain information about MIX devices, including their current assignments, use the following command: `INFO IO [DEVICE]' `LIST IO [DEVICE]' `LI [DEVICE]' Without arguments, lists all devices. With a numeric argument, shows information about that particular device. For more uses of `INFO' command, see *note list breakpoints::. The information is displayed in tabular form and contains the following columns: UNIT Unit number. IOT I/O time per block. SKT Seek time. ADDR Memory address for the pending I/O operation. POS Device position for the pending I/O operation. This column is meaningful only for tape and disk devices. OP Opcode or `N/A', if no operation is pending. CLOCK Clock time when the I/O will occur. To examine the current clock time, see *note list breakpoints::. ASGN File assigned to that device. The example below shows the information about card reader, obtained after the first loader card was read: MIX> info io 16 UNIT IOT SKT ADDR POS OP CLOCK ASGN 16 10000 0 16 0 IN 15000 easter.obj 3.3.5 Running a Program ----------------------- `GO' `G' `RUN' `R' Emulates MIX GO button. This command does the following: a. A single card is read into locations `0000--0015'; b. When the card has been completely read and the card reader is no longer busy, a `JMP' to location `0000' occurs. The J-register is also set to 0. 3.3.6 Breakpoints ----------------- A "breakpoint" makes your program stop whenever a certain location in the program is reached. When the program stops at a breakpoint we say that this breakpoint has been "passed" or "hit". For each breakpoint, two numbers are defined: "ignore count", which specifies the number of passes before that breakpoint is enabled, and "pass count", which specifies the number of passes after which the breakpoint will be deleted. Each created breakpoint is assigned a "sequence number", which can be used to refer to that breakpoint in other commands. Another way to refer to a breakpoint is by the program location it is set at. Thus, each command described in this subsection has two forms: a form which uses breakpoint numbers, and a form that uses program locations. The second form is constructed by prefixing the command with `ADDRESS' keyword (abbreviated `AD'). For example, the following command deletes breakpoint number 2 (*note delete breakpoints::): MIX> DELETE 2 In contrast, the following command deletes all breakpoints set at address 1000: MIX> ADDRESS DELETE 1000 3.3.6.1 Setting Breakpoints ........................... Breakpoints are set with the `BREAK' command (abbreviated `B'). `BREAK LOCATION' `B LOCATION' Set a breakpoint at the given LOCATION. Both ignore and pass counts are set to 0. A sequence number assigned to the breakpoint is displayed, as shown in the example below: MIX> BR 1000 BREAKPOINT 1 IS SET AT ADDRESS 1000 This sequence number can then be used to refer to this breakpoint. `BREAK TEMP LOCATION' `BT LOCATION' `TB LOCATION' Sets a temporary breakpoint at the given LOCATION. A "temporary breakpoint" is a breakpoint which is deleted after a single hit. In other words, it has pass count set to 1. This command is equivalent to: BREAK LOCATION ADDRESS PASSCOUNT LOCATION 1 *Note configure breakpoints::, for information about `PASSCOUNT' command. You can set any number of breakpoints at the same place in your program. This feature is not very useful at the moment, it is reserved for future use. 3.3.6.2 Deleting Breakpoints ............................ It is often necessary to eliminate a breakpoint which has done its job and is no longer needed. This is called "deleting" the breakpoint. A deleted breakpoint no longer exists, and its sequence number is returned to the pool of available numbers. It is not necessary to delete a breakpoint to proceed past it. `Mixsim' automatically ignores breakpoints on the first instruction to be executed when you continue execution without changing the execution address. `DELETE [NUMBER-LIST]' `D [NUMBER-LIST]' Delete specified breakpoints. NUMBER-LIST is a whitespace-separated list of breakpoint numbers. If no argument is specified, delete all breakpoints (in this case `mixsim' asks confirmation). When prefixed with `ADDRESS' (abbreviated `AD'), NUMBER-LIST is treated as a list of addresses, instead of breakpoint numbers. Examples: 1. Delete all breakpoints: MIX> DELETE 2. Delete breakpoints 1, 3 and 5: MIX> DELETE 1 3 5 3. Delete breakpoints set at addresses 1000 and 3000: MIX> ADDRESS DELETE 1000 3000 3.3.6.3 Disabling and Enabling Breakpoints .......................................... Instead of deleting a breakpoint, you might prefer to "disable" it. A disabled breakpoint continues to exist, but is ignored. You may enable it again later, if the need arises. To disable and enable breakpoints, use `ENABLE' and `DISABLE' commands, described below. To obtain information about existing breakpoints and their status, use `INFO BREAK' command (*note list breakpoints::). `DISABLE [NUMBER-LIST]' `DIS [NUMBER-LIST]' Disable breakpoints, specified by NUMBER-LIST. If no arguments are given, disables all breakpoints. `ENABLE NUMBER-LIST' `ENA NUMBER-LIST' Enable breakpoints, specified by NUMBER-LIST. If no arguments are given, enables all breakpoints. Both commands may be prefixed with `ADDRESS' (abbreviated `AD'), to specify breakpoints by MIX addresses, rather than by breakpoint numbers. 3.3.6.4 Configure Breakpoints ............................. Each breakpoint has two numbers associated with it: "ignore count", which specifies the number of passes before that breakpoint is enabled, and "pass count", which specifies the number of passes after which the breakpoint will be deleted. `IGNORE NUMBER COUNT' `I NUMBER COUNT' Set ignore count for breakpoint NUMBER to COUNT. `PASSCOUNT NUMBER COUNT' `P NUMBER COUNT' Set pass count for breakpoint NUMBER to COUNT. Both commands may be prefixed with `ADDRESS' (abbreviated `AD'), in which case their first argument, N, is treated as a MIX location where the breakpoint is set, rather than its number. For example, the following command sets pass count to 1 for all breakpoints set at location 1000: MIX> ADDRESS PASSCOUNT 1000 1 3.3.6.5 Listing Breakpoints ........................... `INFO BREAK [NUM]' `LIST BREAK [NUM]' `LB [NUM]' Without argument, lists all existing breakpoints. With an argument, lists only breakpoint NUM. When prefixed with `ADDRESS' (abbreviated `AD'), treats its argument as a MIX location and lists breakpoints set at that location. Following is an example of a breakpoint listing: NUM LOC ENB CNT IGN PAS 1 1000 Y 1 0 0 2 1040 N 10 8 0 3 1230 Y 0 0 1 The columns and their meanings are: Column Meaning ------------------------------------------------------------------- NUM Breakpoint number. LOC Location. ENB Is the breakpoint enabled or not. CNT Number of passes registered this far. IGN Ignore count. PAS Pass count. 3.3.7 Stopping and Continuing ----------------------------- The principal purposes of using a debugger are so that you can stop your program before it terminates; or so that, if your program runs into trouble, you can investigate and find out why. Inside `mixsim' a program may stop either because it hit an active breakpoint or because it reached a new line after `NEXT' or `STEP' command (see below). Additionally, you can stop a running program at any moment, by pressing interrupt (usually `C-c'). `CONTINUE' `C' Continue program execution, at the address where it last stopped. A typical debugging technique is to set a breakpoint (*note set breakpoints::) at the location where a problem is believed to lie, run your program until it stops at that breakpoint, and then step through the suspect area, examining the variables that are interesting, until you see the problem happen. The following two commands are useful with this technique. `NEXT [COUNT]' `N [COUNT]' Execute next instruction and stop again. With an argument, execute next COUNT instructions. If any of the executed instructions is a function call, that function is not descended into. `STEP [COUNT]' `S [COUNT]' Execute next instruction and stop again. If the instruction is a function call, descend into that function. With an argument, execute next COUNT instructions. 3.3.8 Executing Shell Commands. ------------------------------- `SHELL [COMMAND]' `! [COMMAND]' Execute given shell command, by running `/bin/sh -c COMMAND'. For example, to see the listing of the current working directory, do: MIX> ! ls -l If no arguments are supplied, execute a subordinate shell. 3.3.9 Examining Data and Registers ---------------------------------- `DUMP' `DU' Dump MIX registers and memory contents. The output format is described below. `DUMP MEMORY [FROM [TO]]' `DM [FROM [TO]]' Dump MIX memory. When used without arguments, dumps entire address space. When used with one argument, dumps the memory contents starting from location FROM. When used with two arguments, dumps the contents of memory between the locations FROM and TO, inclusive. Both locations are rounded to the nearest word boundary. The output is formatted in blocks, each one containing 5 machine words. Each block is preceded by the location of its first word. Each word is printed in three forms, located in rows. The first row is the decimal value of the word, the second row is its representation in instruction format (`TAOCP, 1.3.1, p.124, Instruction format'), and the last one gives its printable representation. For example, the words `3000--3004' of `hello.mix' code look as follows: 3000 +0000787219621 +0000786695330 +0000000000133 +3003 00 18 37 +3001 00 18 34 +0000 00 02 05 '*d Q7' '*b Q4' ' BE' +0000135582544 +0000687973395 +0517 13 13 16 +2624 26 16 19 'HELLO' ', WOR' The above example is split in two groups due to printing restrictions. If several blocks of memory contain the same data, only first of them is displayed, the rest being replaced by a message, similar to the following: Lines 3015 to 3995 are the same. `DUMP REGISTERS' `DR' Dump contents of MIX registers. The following example illustrates the output format: Registers A/X +00000000000 +00041363636 + 0 + 8775582 Index Registers +00000 +00000 +05670 +00000 +00000 +00000 + 0 + 0 + 3000 + 0 + 0 + 0 Jump Register +00015 Overflow toggle: OFF + 13 Comparison Indicator: EQUAL Clock = 262436 u. Location = 3001, M 3003, I 0, F 18, C 37, inst = + 5673002245 `DISASSEMBLE [FROM [TO]]' `UNASM [FROM [TO]]' `U [FROM [TO]]' Dump a range of memory FROM-TO as MIX instructions. If TO is not given, disassemble first five words starting at FROM. If no arguments are given, disassemble first five words starting from the current instruction pointer: MIX> disassemble 0 0 IN 16(16) 1 IN 29(16) 2 LD1 0(0:0) 3 JBUS *(16) 4 LDA 30 3.3.10 A Summary of Terminal Commands. -------------------------------------- For convenience, this section lists all available terminal commands in alphabetical order, along with a short description and a reference to their detailed description. -- Terminal Command: ADDRESS BREAKPOINT-COMMAND BREAKPOINT-COMMAND is any of the following commands with appropriate arguments: `DELETE', `ENABLE', `INFO BREAK', `DISABLE', `IGNORE', `PASSCOUNT'. The `ADDRESS' prefix makes BREAKPOINT-COMMAND to refer to breakpoints using memory locations they are set as, rather than breakpoint numbers. *Note ADDRESS prefix: breakpoints. -- Terminal Command: ASGN DEVICE FILE Assign FILE to the given MIX device. *Note devices::. -- Terminal Command: BREAK [TEMP] LOCATION Set a breakpoint at the given LOCATION. If `TEMP' is given, set a temporary breakpoint, active for one pass only. *Note breakpoints::. -- Terminal Command: BT LOCATION-LIST -- Terminal Command: TB LOCATION-LIST Shortcut for `BREAK TEMP'. -- Terminal Command: DELETE [NUM-LIST] Delete specified breakpoints. NUM-LIST is a list of breakpoint numbers or, if `ADDRESS' prefix is used, their addresses. Without arguments, delete all breakpoints. *Note delete breakpoints::. -- Terminal Command: CONTINUE -- Terminal Command: C Continue program execution, at the address where it last stopped. *Note stopping::. -- Terminal Command: DISABLE [NUM-LIST] Disable breakpoints. NUM-LIST is a list of breakpoint numbers or, if `ADDRESS' prefix is used, their addresses. Without arguments, disable all breakpoints. *Note disable breakpoints::. -- Terminal Command: DISASSEMBLE [FROM [TO]] -- Terminal Command: UNASM [FROM [TO]] -- Terminal Command: U [FROM [TO]] Dump a range of memory as MIX instructions. *Note DISASSEMBLE: data. -- Terminal Command: DUMP -- Terminal Command: DU Dump MIX registers and memory contents. *Note data::. -- Terminal Command: DUMP REGISTERS -- Terminal Command: DR Dump contents of MIX registers. *Note DUMP REGISTERS: data. -- Terminal Command: DUMP MEMORY [FROM [TO]] -- Terminal Command: DM [FROM [TO]] Dump MIX memory. *Note DUMP MEMORY: data. -- Terminal Command: ENABLE [NUM-LIST] Enable breakpoints. NUM-LIST is a list of breakpoint numbers or, if `ADDRESS' prefix is used, their addresses. Without arguments, enable all breakpoints. *Note ENABLE: disable breakpoints. -- Terminal Command: GO -- Terminal Command: RUN Run a program. *Note running::. -- Terminal Command: HELP [COMMAND-VERB] -- Terminal Command: ? [COMMAND-VERB] Display a short usage summary about COMMAND-VERB. Without arguments, display all available commands. *Note help::. -- Terminal Command: IGNORE NUMBER COUNT Set ignore count for breakpoint NUMBER to COUNT. NUMBER is a breakpoint number or, if `ADDRESS' prefix is used, its address. *Note IGNORE: configure breakpoints. -- Terminal Command: INFO BREAK [NUM] -- Terminal Command: LIST BREAK [NUM] -- Terminal Command: LB [NUM] Without argument, lists all existing breakpoints. With an argument, lists only breakpoint NUM. May be prefixed with `ADDRESS' to use breakpoint address instead of number. *Note list breakpoints::. -- Terminal Command: INFO IO [NUM] -- Terminal Command: LIST IO [NUM] -- Terminal Command: LI [NUM] Without arguments, list all devices. With a numeric argument, show information about that particular device. *Note INFO IO: devices. -- Terminal Command: NEXT [COUNT] Execute next COUNT (default is 1) instructions and stop again. *Note NEXT: stopping. -- Terminal Command: PASSCOUNT NUMBER COUNT Set pass count for breakpoint NUMBER to COUNT. NUMBER is a breakpoint number or, if `ADDRESS' prefix is used, its address. *Note PASSCOUNT: configure breakpoints. -- Terminal Command: SOURCE FILENAME -- Terminal Command: SO FILENAME Execute the command file FILENAME. *Note command files::, for more information about command files and their execution. -- Terminal Command: QUIT Quit the terminal. *Note quitting::. -- Terminal Command: SHELL [COMMAND] -- Terminal Command: ? [COMMAND] Execute given shell command. *Note shell commands::. -- Terminal Command: STEP [COUNT] Execute next COUNT (default is 1) instructions and stop again. If a function call is encountered, descend into the function. *Note STEP: stopping. 3.4 Command Files ================= A "command file" is a file containing `mixsim' commands, one per line. Comments (lines starting with `#') and empty lines are also allowed. An empty line in a command file does nothing; it does not mean to repeat the last command, as it would from the terminal. Command files are useful to store sequences of `mixsim' commands for executing them later. There are two ways to execute a command file: explicit, by using `SOURCE' command, or implicit, by naming the file `.mixsim' and storing it in the current working directory. `SOURCE FILENAME' `SO FILENAME' Execute the command file FILENAME. The lines in a command file are executed sequentially. They are not printed as they are executed. An error in any command terminates execution of the command file and control is returned to the console. However, any `mixsim' command that prints a diagnostic message saying what it is doing, continues to do so even when called from a command file. Commands that would ask for confirmation if used interactively proceed without asking, as if an affirmative answer was obtained. When started in terminal mode (*note terminal::), `mixsim' searches for file named `.mixsim' in the current working directory, and, if this file exists, executes it. This file can be used to provide necessary default settings. For example, the following `.mixsim' file assigns `easter.dck' to the card reader device and sets breakpoint at address `1000': asgn 16 easter.dck br 1000 3.5 `mixsim' option summary. ============================ This section summarizes `mixsim' command line options. Usage: mixsim [OPTIONS] [DECK-FILE] `--assign-device=DEV=FILE' `-a DEV=FILE' Assign FILE to the MIX device DEV. *Note exec::. `--terminal' `-t' Run in terminal mode. *Note terminal::. `--help' `-h' Print a concise help summary. `--version' `-V' Print program version and license information. 4 `mixrun' ********** The MIX package provides a utility for assembling and executing a MIXAL file in one run. The utility is called `mixrun'. In its simplest form, it is called with the name of MIXAL source file as an argument, e.g.: $ mixrun hello.mix HELLO, WORLD Registers A/X +00000000000 +00041363636 + 0 + 8775582 Index Registers +00000 +00000 +05670 +00000 +00000 +00000 + 0 + 0 + 3000 + 0 + 0 + 0 ... By default, a dump of the machine state is produced at the standard error. To direct it to another file, use `--dump' (`-d') command line option, e.g.: `mixrun --dump=hello.dump hello.mix'. To suppress the dump, use `--no-dump' command line option. You can also request producing a listing file. To do so, use `--list' (`-l') option. By default, the name of the listing file is constructed by appending `.lst' suffix to the base name of the input file. To use another file, give its name as an argument to `--list', as in the example below: $ mixrun --list=my.list `input' # or: $ mixrun -lmy.list `input' Notice, that an argument to `--list' option must be separated from it by an equals sign, with no whitespace on any side of it. Similarly, when a short form, `-l', is used, its argument must follow the option immediately. As any other MIX program, `mixrun' understands two informational options. The option `--version' (`-V') displays the program version and a short licensing information, and the option `--help' (`-h') shows a short usage summary. 5 How to Report a Bug ********************* Email bug reports to . As the purpose of bug reporting is to improve software, please be sure to include maximum information when reporting a bug. The information needed is: * Version of the package you are using. * Compilation options used when configuring the package. * Conditions under which the bug appears. Appendix A GNU Free Documentation License ***************************************** Version 1.3, 3 November 2008 Copyright (C) 2000, 2001, 2002, 2007, 2008 Free Software Foundation, Inc. `http://fsf.org/' Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies of this license document, but changing it is not allowed. 0. PREAMBLE The purpose of this License is to make a manual, textbook, or other functional and useful document "free" in the sense of freedom: to assure everyone the effective freedom to copy and redistribute it, with or without modifying it, either commercially or noncommercially. Secondarily, this License preserves for the author and publisher a way to get credit for their work, while not being considered responsible for modifications made by others. This License is a kind of "copyleft", which means that derivative works of the document must themselves be free in the same sense. It complements the GNU General Public License, which is a copyleft license designed for free software. We have designed this License in order to use it for manuals for free software, because free software needs free documentation: a free program should come with manuals providing the same freedoms that the software does. But this License is not limited to software manuals; it can be used for any textual work, regardless of subject matter or whether it is published as a printed book. We recommend this License principally for works whose purpose is instruction or reference. 1. APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS This License applies to any manual or other work, in any medium, that contains a notice placed by the copyright holder saying it can be distributed under the terms of this License. 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The operator of an MMC Site may republish an MMC contained in the site under CC-BY-SA on the same site at any time before August 1, 2009, provided the MMC is eligible for relicensing. ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents ==================================================== To use this License in a document you have written, include a copy of the License in the document and put the following copyright and license notices just after the title page: Copyright (C) YEAR YOUR NAME. Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.3 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled ``GNU Free Documentation License''. If you have Invariant Sections, Front-Cover Texts and Back-Cover Texts, replace the "with...Texts." line with this: with the Invariant Sections being LIST THEIR TITLES, with the Front-Cover Texts being LIST, and with the Back-Cover Texts being LIST. If you have Invariant Sections without Cover Texts, or some other combination of the three, merge those two alternatives to suit the situation. If your document contains nontrivial examples of program code, we recommend releasing these examples in parallel under your choice of free software license, such as the GNU General Public License, to permit their use in free software. Concept Index ************* This is a general index of all issues discussed in this manual. !: See 3.3.8. (line 892) "Hello, world" program.: See 2. (line 99) .mixsim: See 3.4. (line 1153) ?: See 3.3.10. (line 1065) a, -a short option, description: See 3.2. (line 457) ADDRESS <1>: See 3.3.10. (line 984) ADDRESS: See 3.3.6. (line 690) addressing breakpoints: See 3.3.6. (line 690) ASGN <1>: See 3.3.10. (line 993) ASGN: See 3.3.4. (line 604) assembling: See 2.1. (line 117) assign, --assign option, summary: See 3.5. (line 1171) assign-device, --assign-device option, description:See 3.2. (line 457) assigning files to devices: See 3.2. (line 457) B: See 3.3.6.1. (line 711) BREAK <1>: See 3.3.10. (line 998) BREAK: See 3.3.6.1. (line 711) BREAK TEMP: See 3.3.6.1. (line 722) breakpoint: See 3.3.6. (line 681) breakpoint number: See 3.3.6. (line 690) breakpoints, referring to: See 3.3.6. (line 690) BT <1>: See 3.3.10. (line 1004) BT: See 3.3.6.1. (line 722) C <1>: See 3.3.10. (line 1016) C: See 3.3.7. (line 865) card deck: See 2.1. (line 122) command file: See 3.4. (line 1129) CONTINUE <1>: See 3.3.10. (line 1015) CONTINUE: See 3.3.7. (line 865) cross-reference: See 2.2. (line 290) cross-reference, --cross-reference option, description:See 2.2. (line 290) cross-reference, --cross-reference option, summary:See 2.4. (line 366) D: See 3.3.6.2. (line 754) d, -d short option, described: See 4. (line 1208) debug-gram, --debug-gram option, summary: See 2.4. (line 372) debug-lex, --debug-lex option, summary: See 2.4. (line 375) deck: See 2.1. (line 122) DELETE <1>: See 3.3.10. (line 1008) DELETE: See 3.3.6.2. (line 754) devices, assigning files to: See 3.2. (line 457) devices, binding: See 3.2. (line 457) DIS: See 3.3.6.3. (line 787) DISABLE <1>: See 3.3.10. (line 1021) DISABLE: See 3.3.6.3. (line 787) DISASSEMBLE <1>: See 3.3.10. (line 1028) DISASSEMBLE: See 3.3.9. (line 960) DM: See 3.3.10. (line 1048) DR: See 3.3.10. (line 1042) DU: See 3.3.10. (line 1036) DUMP <1>: See 3.3.10. (line 1035) DUMP: See 3.3.9. (line 904) DUMP MEMORY: See 3.3.9. (line 909) DUMP REGISTERS: See 3.3.9. (line 943) dump, --dump option, described: See 4. (line 1208) ENA: See 3.3.6.3. (line 792) ENABLE <1>: See 3.3.10. (line 1053) ENABLE: See 3.3.6.3. (line 792) executing MIX programs: See 3.2. (line 435) force, --force option, summary: See 2.4. (line 347) GO <1>: See 3.3.10. (line 1060) GO: See 3.3.5. (line 664) hello.mix: See 2. (line 99) HELP <1>: See 3.3.10. (line 1064) HELP: See 3.3.2. (line 577) help, --help option, summary <1>: See 3.5. (line 1183) help, --help option, summary: See 2.4. (line 384) I: See 3.3.6.4. (line 808) IGNORE <1>: See 3.3.10. (line 1071) IGNORE: See 3.3.6.4. (line 808) implementation, MIX machine: See 3.1. (line 406) INFO: See 3.3.10. (line 1077) INFO BREAK: See 3.3.6.5. (line 827) INFO IO: See 3.3.4. (line 618) l, -l short option, : See 2.2. (line 192) l, -l short option, described: See 4. (line 1214) LB: See 3.3.10. (line 1079) LI: See 3.3.10. (line 1088) LIST: See 3.3.10. (line 1078) LIST IO: See 3.3.4. (line 618) list, --list option, : See 2.2. (line 192) list, --list option, described: See 4. (line 1214) list, --list option, summary: See 2.4. (line 333) list-file, --list-file option, : See 2.2. (line 203) list-file, --list-file option, summary: See 2.4. (line 342) listing: See 2.2. (line 211) MIX simulator: See 3. (line 395) mixal: See 2. (line 94) mixrun: See 4. (line 1194) mixsim: See 3. (line 395) mixsim, running: See 3.2. (line 435) NEXT <1>: See 3.3.10. (line 1094) NEXT: See 3.3.7. (line 877) no-dump, --no-dump option, described: See 4. (line 1212) o, -o short option, description: See 2.1. (line 182) output, --output option, description: See 2.1. (line 182) output, --output option, summary: See 2.4. (line 352) P: See 3.3.6.4. (line 812) PASSCOUNT <1>: See 3.3.10. (line 1099) PASSCOUNT: See 3.3.6.4. (line 812) program listing: See 2.2. (line 211) QUIT <1>: See 3.3.10. (line 1114) QUIT: See 3.3.3. (line 592) r, -r short option, : See 2.3. (line 309) raw object output: See 2.3. (line 309) raw-output, --raw-output option, : See 2.3. (line 309) raw-output, --raw-output option, summary: See 2.4. (line 359) RUN <1>: See 3.3.10. (line 1061) RUN: See 3.3.5. (line 664) running mixsim: See 3.2. (line 435) SHELL <1>: See 3.3.10. (line 1117) SHELL: See 3.3.8. (line 892) simulator: See 3. (line 395) SO: See 3.3.10. (line 1108) SOURCE <1>: See 3.4. (line 1139) SOURCE: See 3.3.10. (line 1107) startup file: See 3.4. (line 1153) STEP <1>: See 3.3.10. (line 1121) STEP: See 3.3.7. (line 883) Symbol listing: See 2.2. (line 248) t, -t short option, description: See 3.3. (line 469) TB <1>: See 3.3.10. (line 1005) TB: See 3.3.6.1. (line 722) terminal mode, mixsim: See 3.3. (line 469) terminal, --terminal option, description: See 3.3. (line 469) terminal, --terminal option, summary: See 3.5. (line 1177) U <1>: See 3.3.10. (line 1030) U: See 3.3.9. (line 960) UNASM <1>: See 3.3.10. (line 1029) UNASM: See 3.3.9. (line 960) version, --version option, summary <1>: See 3.5. (line 1187) version, --version option, summary: See 2.4. (line 388) x, -x short option, description: See 2.2. (line 290) xref, --xref option, description: See 2.2. (line 290) xref, --xref option, summary: See 2.4. (line 365)